John Winthrops City Upon a Hill Essay Example for Free

John Winthrops City Upon a Hill Essay Q. What did John Winthrop mean by a city upon a hill? A. When John Winthrop states that â€Å"wee must Consider that wee shall be as a Citty upon a Hill† he indicates that the settlers who are to settle in the New World must hold their business and social and religious activities to a level above reproach, because they will be a test case to a world waiting for their settlement to fail. With â€Å"the eies of all people are uppon us†, the settlers must provide a shining example for others to follow behind. The Puritans believed that the conditions they were living in England had become extremely corrupted and so they left for the New World so that they could find ways to purify themselves and become better Christians. Because the corruption in England could not be fought from within England itself, it would have to be fought by beginning a new and model colony that could be looked upon as a representation of the way a truly Christian society should function in a manner that gives glory to God. Q. What does the author’s writing style tell you about the Puritans who settled in Boston? A. John Winthrop’s style of writing reveals several interesting facts about the Puritans who settled in Boston. First, God and Christian principles are mentioned in nearly ever sentence of this writing. The Puritans believed that their belief in God was the most important aspect of their lives, and so they incorporated that belief into every part of their daily lives. Next, the style of writing represents a simplistic form of expression, using all everyday terms and no obscure language. The Puritans were known to be very plain-spoken individuals. This is not to say, however, that they were uneducated, as this body of work shows clarity of thought as well as a well-constructed call to action to become a city upon a hill. Finally, John Winthrop’s style of writing indicates both a phonetic way of spelling as well as a formality in speech itself. Almost a form of middle English instead of modern-day English, the spellings of various words are much more flowery than the essay itself.

History Of Conducting Polymers Engineering Essay

History Of Conducting Polymers Engineering Essay Dr H. Letheby was the one to first initiate the study of conducting polymers, who was a known professor teaching at the College of London Hospital. In 1862, he first attempted to analyze the behaviors of the chemical reaction and to select them accordingly. His study of electropolymerized aniline sulfate was published in the Journal of the Chemical Society. The results showed the aniline sulphate turning to a bluish black solid layer, formed on a platinum electrode after its electropolymerization (1). It was between 1907 and 1911 that the Nobel Laureate Richard Willstatter characterized the oligomeric oxidation products of aniline through his methodic way of research (2). By using a starter Al(Et)3/Ti(OPr)4, the polymerization of acetylene in hexane rendered a polyacetylene for the first time in 1958 in the form of a polymer with a highly crystalline and a heavy molecular weight produced by Natta et al. The method did not attract any attention owing to the highly air sensitive, infusible and the insoluble properties of the compound obtained(3). The concept of iodine doping was established in the same time period of 1960s by the Czechoslovak researchers for polyaniline. This resulted in the conductivity of 1 S/cm for Polyaniline-iodine complexes. The attention of researchers was diverted towards organic conductors, in spite of the discovery of the inorganic explosive polysulfurnitride (SN)x in the 1970s, with its additional properties of conductivity at low temperatures. A silvery film of polyacetylene was created in 1974 by the usage of Ziegler-Natta catalyst which was not conductive although it was found to be the closest to metals in terms of appearance (5). The electronic conductivity of polyaniline was reaffirmed in 1974, a few years before the publishing of the polyacetylenes progress. The paper demonstrated interesting results of a parallel study with another conductive polymer also known as polypyrrole. The conductivity obtained was ranging from 5 to 30 S/cm (6). One of the important moments was the publishing of the doped polyacetylene in 1977. The modification of the polyacetylene film via a partial oxidation treatment with the oxidizing agents such as the halogens and the AsF5 was obtained by MacDiarmid, Shirakawa and Heeger which resulted in the film becoming conductive (5). Molecular Orbital and Molecular Structure of Conducting Polymers All the valence electrons are utilized in covalent ÏÆ'-bonds of the saturated polymers such as polyethylene. The material will show typical insulating properties owing to the gap between the valance band and the conduction band. Along the polymers supporting structure, a Ï€ system is formed in the conjugated polymers (8). A restricted alternation of double and single bonds is required in the conjugated bonds which is also apparent in the conducting polymers structure. The carbon atoms create 3 ÏÆ'-bonds with the adjacent atoms and the remaining p orbitals which is also explained as the pz orbitals. Nitrogen atoms are found to be involved in the conjugation path such as the polyaniline in some of the conjugated polymers (11). High energy orbitals are created as a result of this configuration in which the electrons are loosely bonded to their respective atoms. The conducting, semiconducting or the insulating properties of the material are determined by the distance lying between the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and LUMO( the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital). The carrier movement or the jump from the HOMO to the LUMO creates the conduction mechanism. This becomes convenient if the distance between the HUMO and the LUMO energy is small. The sp2 hybridized linear carbon chains partially determines the conductivity of polyacetylene, which is the simplest form of semiconducting and metallic organic polymer. Six electrons are present outside the nucleus of the carbon atom, out of which 4 are valence electrons such as 2s and the 2p electrons, which takes part in the chemical bonds. The 1s and 2s orbitals of the carbon atoms are filled and the 2p orbitals are filled as well with 2 electrons in case of free space or where there is an existence of spherically symmetric distances. The creation of 3 sp2 and 1 p orbital is the result of hybridization. The bonding of 2 out of 3 sp2 orbitals on each carbon atom to another carbon atom adjacent to it and the bonding of last sp2 orbital with hydrogen or any of the side groups is the result. Covalent bonds are created between these atoms which in this case is referred to as ÏÆ' bond. It has a cylindrical symmetry around the internuclear axis. A Ï€ bond [10] is formed by the over lapping of unhybridized p orbitals of the adjacent carbon atoms. The fig 2.1 shows both the ÏÆ' and Ï€ bonds in the conjugated polymer structure. There is weak interaction between them creating weak bonds of the Ï€ electrons which exposes them to the risks of delocalization thus causing electrical conductivity of the polymer (10). According to Hà ¼nkel and Blochs simple free electron molecular orbital model theory, in case of a lengthy molecular chain showing metallic transport properties, the delocalization of Ï€ electrons over the entire chain forming a small band gap is seen. A conjugated polymer which has an alternation of double and single bonds, as a result, can be conductive in the right conditions. The delocalized electrons over the conjugated space are evenly distributed creating equivalent bonds (12). Differing bonding lengths of 1.54 nm, double bond: 1.34 nm) [9] are observed under simple conditions. The alternation of double and single bonds can also be observed. A typical conducting polymer matches an insulator in conductive properties without the need of doping or the orbitals being filled with electrically conductive particles. The transformation of the conductivity of a conjugated polymer from the insulating level to the conducting level is seen through the doping process. By the process of electrochemical oxidation and reduction doping can be obtained or it can also be attained by the direct exposure of the polymer to a doping material. Atomic or molecular species have been used as dopants which are either electron acceptors such as I2, Br2, AsF5, and LiClO4 or electron donors like Li, Na, and K (9, 10). 2.3. Conductor, Semiconductor and Insulator Solids such as metals have continuous orbitals. The electrons which are nearest to the filled levels can be excited and therefore move to the unoccupied levels without the requirement of any energy. As the temperatures increase the metals lose their conductivity in spite of the electrons being more excited. The electrons and the atoms colliding with each other result in the thermal motion of the atoms. The electrons lose their efficiency in transporting charges owing to the collisions. An energy gap separates the bands for transporting charges in semiconductors and insulators. Certain electrons gain enough energy as the temperature is increased, to move into the next unoccupied orbital. The metal becomes a semiconductor as the electrons are now mobile and create the electrical conductivity of the metal. In case of a large energy gap, the electrons may never be able to reach the conductive bands that will result in zero conductivity, such types of materials are known as insulators. Wh ile in semiconductor metals, the increase in the temperatures will also increase the conductivity as more electrons have the ability to reach the valence bands. 2.4Conductivity Mechanism High electron affiliation or low oxidation potentials are the characteristics of conducting polymers. This means that the polymers can be reduced and doped with electrons donors (n-type) and also have the potential to be oxidized and doped with electron acceptors (p-type). The HOMO-LUMO energy gap which has the semiconductor property of conjugated polymers as compared to conventional inorganic compounds, are owing to the additional charges associated to the creation of new and unfilled electronic energy states existing within the original HOMO-LUMO energy gap. A dopants role is either the removal or the addition of electrons. For instance in the case of iodine (I2) an electron will be taken for the formation of I3 ion. If the relocation of an electron in a semi conductor polymer by moving the electron from top most valence band such as the polyacetylene or polypyrrole, then as per the classical band theory, the creation of the vacancy hole as such will not be delocalized. A radical cation would be obtained in the case of the removal of an electron from a carbon atom. Owing to the Columbo attraction to its opposite ion (I3- ), the localization of the radical cation also known as the polaron takes place which in normal cases would be considered as having low mobility. This would be due to the local change in the geometrys equilibrium of the radical cation to the neutral molecule. The charge is moved along as shown in the fig 2.5 while the mobility of the polaron along the polyacetylene chain may be high. But a high concentration of opposite ions is necessary as the opposite ion (I3 -) to the positive charge is not very mobile, so that the polaron can move in the field of close opposite ions. The polymer which are mobile enough to conduct electric charges have the dopants generate polarons and bipolarons. The ionization of the conjugated polymer chain to a positive polaron (radical cation) is done by the dopants which is taken as an electron acceptor. These will further emerge as bipolarons or in some cases the two polarons may reversibly combine to create a bipolaron (16). Owing to its highly disordered structure the PPy can be given as an example for bipolaron formation. The formation of a bipolaron happens when two polarons are created on one similar chain (see fig 2.5)(17). 3.Poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) 3.1. Introduction of PEDOT The research in 1967 indicates polythiophenes for the first time as a potential conducting polymers. Furan, pyrrole, and thiophene heterocycles acids catalyzed polymerization was studied by A. G. Davies. In 1982, Tourillon and Garnier first observed true electronic conductivity in polythiophenes. In the presence of perchlorate or tetrafluoroborate opposite ions, Thiophene was electropolymerized on platinum electrodes in acetonitrile. A conductivity of 10-100 S/cm was obtained in spite of the fact that highly conductive polythiophenes were possible from the start with Garnier and Tourillons fundamental work. It has gained long term stability against air and humidity while it failed to fulfill one of the requirements expected of as a truly conductive polymer not as a semiconductor. In 1930s was initiated the EDOT (3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene) chemistry when the corresponding 2, 5-dicarboxylic acid esters were synthesized. Thus biheterocyclic EDOT system consisting of one 1, 4-dioxane r ing and one thiophene moiety was explained which was annelated over the carbon single ([c]-) bond of the thiophene. The good chemical properties, high conductivity and good electro optical properties, the PEDOT has emerged as a promising compound (22). It has been used as an antistatic coating, photovoltaic technology, electroluminescent devices and biomedical sensors, etc (23). Electrochemical polymerization of PEDOT PEDOT was fabricated for the first time by Jonas et al (24) through anodical polymerization where the products showed high conductivity with enhanced chemical and thermal stability as compared to other polythiophenes. The polymerization occurs at the electrode in an electrochemical oxidative polymerization of a monomeric precursor of the conductive polymer. The ionic dopants in the process of polymerization, forming the electrolyte are induced in the polymer (25). The electrochemical polymerization is utilized in the case of EDOT monomer to create highly transmissive sky-blue, doped PEDOT film at the anode. The compatibility provided by the broad range of electrolyte solutions creates high stability of PEDOT films in different electrolyte solutions(26) Flexible PEDOT films were obtained, by Yamato et al in the presence of polyanions in the electrolyte solution, with an electrical conductivity as high as 400 S/cm. Several electrolytes were used in this research such as sulfonated poly (ÃŽ ²-hydroxy-ethers) (S-PHE), 1,3 bis(4-t-butylphenoxy)-2-propysulfate (BPS), poly (4-styrene sulfonate) (PSS), sulfated poly (ÃŽ ²-hydroxy-ethers) having trifluoromethyl groups (S-PHEF), sulfonated poly (ÃŽ ²-hydroxy-ethers) (S-PHE) and sulfonated poly (butadiene). However PEDOT film was deposited on the anode, in the presence of S-HPE, S-PBD and S-PHEF electrolytes. Numerous advantages are present in the electropolymerization technique such as: Materials required in small quantities. Characterizations and speedy analysis. Control of reactions is accurate. While the disadvantages are: In convenience in conducting standard analytical procedures owing to the small quantity of resultant with insoluble property. The electrical conductivity can be increased to a large extent through the electrochemical polymerization while the product obtained has poor transparency and the process must be applied on conducting substrates which will restrict the application purposes (28). 3.2.2 Oxidative chemical polymerization The deposition of a conjugated polymer by in situ oxidative polymerization on the surface is seen. Electrochemical polymerization has limited applications as compared to the chemical oxidation, which is more versatile. By coating the surface with a mixture of monomer and oxidant, chemical oxidation can be carried out with a mixture of the monomer and an oxidant where it enables the spreading of the mixture onto the surface first, owing to the suppression of the spontaneous reaction. These mixtures will have flexibility in their designing of the coating process with the separate application of the monomer and oxidant. These mixtures have a restricted pot life (29). A PEDOT with black, insoluble and infusible properties is obtained with the utilization of oxidizing agents such as the FeCl3 in the oxidative chemical polymerization (21). De Leeuw et al. [20 used iron(III) tosylate (FeIII(OTs)3) as oxidizing agents in the presence of imidazole as a base leading to the conductivity of PEDOT of 550 S/cm.(30). The classification of the reaction of EDOT with Iron (III) tosylate leading to in situ polymerization of PEDOT by Kirchmeyer and Reuter (31) into two categories were as: The monomer subjected to Oxidative polymerization to form neutral polythiophene. The neutral polymer subjected to oxidative doping to conductive polycation. The addition of Lewis acids or protic acids to the polymerization system will cause catalysis of the equilibrium reaction of EDOT to the relevant dimeric and trimeric compounds in the absence of further oxidation, (see fig 2.9)(31). Vapor Phase Polymerization Mohammadi et al(32) did the initial experiments named as Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) process for polypyrrole polymerization. The oxidants used were FeCl3 and H2O2. In 2003 to 2005, J Kim et al first attempted to establish a new route for the highly conductive PEDOT layers with the process of vapor phase polymerization (VPP) (24). The evaporation of the EDOT and its polymerization on the substrate were done in the polymerization chamber where the deposition of the oxidant iron(III)-tosylate was found by bubbling the various types of gases like nitrogen, air and argon through the EDOT reservoir. FeIII tosylate was used as an oxidant and pyridine as a base-inhibitor, through the VPP process. By using oxidant, e.g., a butanol or ethanol solution of FeIII tosylate mixed with pyridine, the substrate coated with PEDOT film was covered. In a chamber flushed with air, nitrogen or argon gas, the EDOT monomers were heated into vapor phase. The polymerization process began and formed the PED OT coating, once they react with oxidizing agents on the substrates. To prove the concept of using a base inhibitor, pyridine, Winther-Jensen et al conducted the experiments. The compound was applied to PET and Pt coated PET substrates after mixing the ferric tosylate solution with pyridine in the respective molar ratio of 1:0.5. Winther et al investigated some of the liquids such as pyridine, pyrazine and quinoline. The materials and Fe (II) were void of any sort of crystal formation. The VPP of EDOT was best suited to pyridine (pKa 5.14, boiling point 115 C °) as the base, owing to quinolines low vapor pressure and the insufficient base characteristic of pyrazine [24]. Winther-Jensen et al measured the conductivity of PEDOT films as a function of temperature. A similar behavior as the semi conductors was observed as with the increase in temperature on which the conductivity also increased. Winther-Jensen et al studied the stability of conductive PEDOT layers in air and aqueous solutions. The creation of PEDOT layer on glass substrates was conducted in this experiment, and the examination carried out in the environments mentioned earlier. Till the constant point a speedy reduction in the water conductivity was seen. A slow paced decrease in the conductivity of air as compared to the water environment was observed. The pH level determines the conductivity of PEDOT. Lower pH values resulted in highest conductivities. The products acidity was observed in the range of pH 1, during the base inhibited VPP of EDOT. In water of pH7 the long term stability is lower as compared to air which takes more time to reach equilibrium with carbon dioxide (34). There is no aqueous transport medium in VPP process. During the PEDOT layer formation no agglomeration was seen. The need for dispersants and stabilizer additives is negated in high processability. The process of polymerization is fast and simple (35).

Hamlet †the Irony Essay -- Essays on Shakespeare Hamlet

Hamlet – the Irony  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   The existence of considerable irony within the Shakespearean tragedy Hamlet is a fact recognized by most literary critics. This paper will examine the play for instances of irony and their interpretation by critics.    In his essay â€Å"O’erdoing Termagant† Howard Felperin comments on Hamlet’s â€Å"ironic consciousness† of the fact that he is unable to quickly execute the command of the ghost:    Our own intuition of the creative or re-creative act that issued in the play also assumes a struggle with the literary past, but one of a more complex nature. It would seem to be Hamlet who is unable to impose successfully the model of an old play upon the intractable material of his present life, and Shakespeare who dramatizes with unfailing control the tragic conflict between his heroic effort to do so and his ironic consciousness that it cannot be done, with the inevitable by-products of hesitation and delay. (107-108)    Right at the outset of the drama, there is irony exhibited in the manner in which Shakespeare characterizes King Claudius – he is simply the perfect ruler – and yet, shortly hereafter when the ghost appears, he is revealed as a truly evil sort. George Lyman Kittredge, in his book, Five Plays of Shakespeare, describes the Bard’s excellent characterization of Claudius:    King Claudius is a superb figure – almost as great a dramatic creation as Hamlet himself. His intellectual powers are of the highest order. He is eloquent – formal when formality is appropriate (as in the speech from the throne), graciously familiar when familiarity is in place (as is his treatment of the family of Polonius), persuasive to an almost superhuman degree (as in his manipulation of the i... ...go: Greenhaven Press, 1996.    Rose, Mark. â€Å"Reforming the Role.† Modern Critical Interpretations: Hamlet. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1986.    Rosenberg, Marvin. â€Å"Laertes: An Impulsive but Earnest Young Aristocrat.† Readings on Hamlet. Ed. Don Nardo. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1999. Rpt. from The Masks of Hamlet. Newark, NJ: Univ. of Delaware P., 1992.    Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1995. http://www.chemicool.com/Shakespeare/hamlet/full.html No line nos.    Wright, Louis B. and Virginia A. LaMar. â€Å"Hamlet: A Man Who Thinks Before He Acts.† Readings on Hamlet. Ed. Don Nardo. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1999. Rpt. from The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. Ed. Louis B. Wright and Virginia A. LaMar. N. p.: Pocket Books, 1958.      

Alligator Essay -- essays research papers

The American Alligator is an amazing reptile, having survived almost unchanged since the time of the dinosaurs. Having been hunted almost for extinction, this reptile has made an amazing comeback in recent years. Inhabiting almost every body of water in Florida. American alligator are not considered endangered species, but these harsh looking creatures are threatened. There are two kinds of species of alligators. There is the American alligator and the Chinese alligator. Many people have a hard time telling the difference between alligators and crocodiles. Alligators are related in the same family as the crocodile, but these two animals are very different. An alligator’s upper jaw overlaps the lower jaw. Alligators have a broad snout while crocodile have a very narrow snout. Alligators have much less aggressive and energetic than the crocodiles. Alligators live in tropical climates and crocodiles live in somewhat colder climates. Their kingdom is Animalia. Their Phylum is Chordata. They come from the class Reptilia. Their order is Crocodylia. Their family is Alligatoridae. Their genus is Alligator and their species is alligator messissipiensis and they are known as American alligators. American alligators are found through southern United States. Large populations are found in Florida, New Orleans, Louisiana and Georgia. They inhabit primarily fresh water to brackish water areas, although they can occasionally be found in salt water. However, alligators lack the salt-extra... Alligator Essay -- essays research papers The American Alligator is an amazing reptile, having survived almost unchanged since the time of the dinosaurs. Having been hunted almost for extinction, this reptile has made an amazing comeback in recent years. Inhabiting almost every body of water in Florida. American alligator are not considered endangered species, but these harsh looking creatures are threatened. There are two kinds of species of alligators. There is the American alligator and the Chinese alligator. Many people have a hard time telling the difference between alligators and crocodiles. Alligators are related in the same family as the crocodile, but these two animals are very different. An alligator’s upper jaw overlaps the lower jaw. Alligators have a broad snout while crocodile have a very narrow snout. Alligators have much less aggressive and energetic than the crocodiles. Alligators live in tropical climates and crocodiles live in somewhat colder climates. Their kingdom is Animalia. Their Phylum is Chordata. They come from the class Reptilia. Their order is Crocodylia. Their family is Alligatoridae. Their genus is Alligator and their species is alligator messissipiensis and they are known as American alligators. American alligators are found through southern United States. Large populations are found in Florida, New Orleans, Louisiana and Georgia. They inhabit primarily fresh water to brackish water areas, although they can occasionally be found in salt water. However, alligators lack the salt-extra...

Statement of Educational Goals Essay -- Philosophy of Education Teachi

Statement of Educational Goals The role of the teacher has changed, perhaps evolved is a better word, since students left the atmosphere of home schooling to that of the classroom. I'm sure that there have always been innovative teachers, but lecture and paperwork (or slate board work) were at one time the norm. In some classes it still is. However, the fact that we have so many stu- dies concerning the development of learning skill, such as the four stages that Piaget ident- ified, and so many theories on the best way to teach a child, such as Constructivism versus Behavorialism, indicates that many educators have realized there have to be better ways, than exclusive lecture and paperwork, to evoke learning. We have learned in our educational courses there are several styles of learning that each of us use one or more of. This is a challenge to the teacher, because it means we can't con- struct all our lessons based on only one style (which is usually our own learning style). We, as teachers, must be willing to expand our own realm of thinking and try new approaches. I love this concept, since I would get bored if I had to teach the same way every day. In my personal view, a classroom that is learning is not the one where seats are neatly in their rows, each child is busy completing a worksheet and no voices are heard. Give me clusters of desks, with students collaborating on projects and the air buzzing with the sound of excited voices. I feel that textbooks should be used as reference tools, not the sole amount of knowledge we want to obtain on any particular subject. In fact, I believe that the true measure of the success of a teacher is when students endeavor to know more. How can this be ac... ...bjects like Social Studies that require remembering facts and dates. What can you do in that situation? I truly believe that board games, set up along the line of "Sorry" and using an ever expanding set of question and answer cards, could be an enjoyable and effective way for students to recall social studies facts, if played on a regular basis. Other topics requiring memorization, such as the 50 states or the American presidents, could be dealt with by developing trading cards in which students strive to com- plete a set. I believe that my job as a teacher is not simply to place knowledge in my students heads. I must also help them understand that knowledge and show them how they can use it throughout their lives. To be truly successful at my job I must transfer my excitement for learning and curiosity to my students, so they will want to learn more.

The Rural Non-Farm Economy

The Rural Non-farm Economy The nonfat economy includes all economic activities other than production of primary agricultural commodities. Nonfat, thus, includes mining, manufacturing, utilities, construction, commerce, transport and a full gamut of financial, personal and government services. Corresponding – the transformation of raw agricultural products by milling, packaging, bulking or transporting – forms a key component of the rural nonfat economy.A broad definition of rural regions as encompassing both dispersed rural settlements as well as the functionally linked rural towns where any corresponding and ancillary nonfat service and commercial activities congregate to service surrounding agricultural settlements. Size: Policy interest in the rural nonfat economy arises in large part because of its increasing importance as a source of income and employment across the developing world. Evidence from a wide array of rural household surveys suggests that nonfat income accounts for about 35 percent of rural income in Africa and roughly 50 percent in Asia and Latin America.Standing roughly 20 percent higher than rural nonfat employment shares, hose income shares confirm the economic importance of part-time and seasonal nonfat activities. Rural residents across the developing world earn a large share of their income?35-50 percent?from nonfat activities. Agricultural households count on nonfat earnings to diversify risk, moderate seasonal income swings, and finance agricultural input purchases, whereas landless and near-landless households everywhere depend heavily on nonfat income for their survival.Over time, the rural nonfat economy has grown rapidly, contributing significantly to both employment and rural income growth. Income data, which include earnings from seasonal and part-time activity, offer a more complete picture of the scale of the ERNE. Rural nonfat employment holds special importance for women. Women account for about one-quarter of t he total full time ERNE workforce in most parts of the developing world. Given their frequently heavy household obligations and more limited mobility, women also participate in part-time ERNE activity, particularly in household-based manufacturing and service activities.Composition: The rural nonfat economy includes a highly heterogeneous collection of trading, crisscrossing, manufacturing, commercial and service activities. Even within the same country, strong differences emerge regionally, as a result of differing natural resource endowments, labor supply, location, infrastructural investments and culture. The scale of individual rural nonfat businesses varies enormously, from part-time self-employment in household-based cottage industries to large-scale corresponding and warehousing facilities operated by large multinational firms.Often highly seasonal, rural nonfat activity fluctuates with the availability of agricultural raw materials and in rhythm with household labor and fina ncial flows twine farm and nonfat activities Remittances account for a large share of rural income in some locations. In the mining economies of Southern Africa, remittances may account for as much as half of all rural household income. They likewise form an important part of household income diversification and risk reduction strategies.In of nonfat earnings, while remittances and transfers typically account for to 20% of non-agricultural rural income and 5% to 10% of total rural income. Equity Implications: The extreme heterogeneity of rural nonfat activity results in widely varying productivity and profitability. Returns vary substantially, normally as a function of differing physical and human capital requirements. Women dominate many of the low-return cottage industries, while the poor dominate other low-return activities, such as small-scale trading and unskilled wage labor used in construction, powering, and many personal services.Wage labor, in both agriculture and nonfat bu siness, also accrues primarily to the poor. The low capital requirements and small scale of many rural nonfat businesses, poor households dominate large segments of the rural nonfat economy. For this reason, many policy makers view the rural inform economy (ERNE) as a potentially important contributor to poverty reduction. Pull Scenario: Where new agricultural technologies and modern farm inputs become available, they lead to agricultural surpluses in some commodities and increased opportunities for trade.In these settings, a growing agriculture stimulates growth of the ERNE through a number of key linkages. Rising labor productivity on the farm increases per capita food supplies and releases farm family workers to undertake nonfat activities. For this reason, green revolution India has seen agricultural labor all from 75% to 65% of rural labor force in the first 25 years following the release of green revolution rice and wheat varieties. Equally important, increases in farm incomes , together with high rural savings rates, make capital available for investment in nonfat activities.These savings rates have reached up to 25-35% in many areas of green revolution Asia Farm households, as their incomes grow, increase their expenditure share on non-food items, thereby accelerating demand for nonfat goods and services. To meet this growing demand, rural households increasingly versify into production of rural nonfat goods and services. The composition of rural nonfat activity changes perceptibly over time in these buoyant agricultural settings. Increases in real wages raise the opportunity cost of labor, thereby making low-return nonfat activities uneconomic.This leads to the demise of many low- return craft and household manufacturing activities and to the growth of higher- return nonfat activities such as mechanical milling, transport, commerce, personal, health and educational services. Growing agricultural incomes attract labor into more productive, higher return rural nonfat services. Push Scenario: In regions without a dynamic economic base, patterns of growth in the rural nonfat economy unfold very differently. Sluggish income growth in agriculture leads to anemic consumer demand, limited corresponding and agricultural input requirements and stagnant wages.Taken together, these tendencies stymie both entrepreneurial and wage-earning opportunities in the rural nonfat economy. Without technological advance in agriculture, labor productivity and per capita farm production fall. In such settings, growing landlines pushes labor force increments into nonfat activity by default. Falling agricultural labor productivity, low opportunity cost of labor and declining household purchasing power induce diversification into low-return, labor- intensive nonfat activities such as basket making, gathering, pottery, weaving, embroidery and mat making.Specialized nonfat enterprises and households opportunities in agriculture and a shortage of both rural sav ings and invertible capital. Arbitration and Migration: Although the prosperity of rural regions and their rural nonfat economies typically depends on agricultural performance during the early stages of economic growth, this link gradually weakens over time as agriculture's share in national economies declines.Rapid arbitration and globalization have opened up new market opportunities for rural nonfat producers of treatable goods and services and for rural workers to migrate and remit. Where conditions permit, these opportunities can stimulate regional economic growth, in some instances benefiting backward regions with poor agricultural potential and in others enhancing opportunities in already rapidly growing rural economies.Rising arbitration and national economic growth, together with improved transport and communication networks, provide important economic linkages between urban and rural areas, opening up new opportunities for rural households Evidence from India, for example, suggests that rapid rural nonfat growth is occurring along transport corridors linked to major urban centers, largely independent of their agricultural base Similarly, in Southeast Asia and in China high population density and low transport costs have led to rapid growth in urban-to-rural subcontracting for labor- intensive manufactures destined for international export markets.The importance of migration and remittance income proves highly context-specific, varying both locations and over time. Empirical evidence suggests that migrant remittances may serve to increase rural investment, finance schooling, house construction and agricultural inputs in some locations. Less beneficial are the impacts on migrant worker health and on family social cohesion. Liberalizing and Globalization: Beginning in the sass, widespread economic liberalizing has opened up the rural nonfat economy as never before – to new opportunities and to new threats.Liberalizing, by reducing direct governmen t involvement in production and marketing, has opened up new market opportunities for the private sector, articulacy in agricultural processing, input supply and trade. Relaxed controls on foreign exchange and investment have unleashed a flood of foreign direct investment into Latin America, Asia and Africa. As a result, large exporters, agribusiness firms and supermarket chains increasingly penetrate rural economies of the developing world, altering the scale and structure of rural supply chains as they do.This rapidly changing environment opens up opportunities for some rural suppliers to access new markets. But liberalizing and globalization expose other rural genuineness to new threats, as quantity requirements and quality standards impose new ways of doing business that risk excluding intellectualized rural enterprises on which the rural poor often rely. Available evidence suggests that rapid concentration has triggered the bankruptcy of thousands of small firms in recent decad es.Although many of these bankruptcies affected urban traders, emerging evidence suggests that small rural traders and the wholesale markets they serve likewise risk being displaced by larger, specialized wholesalers. Some categories of rural nonfat activity have thrived in the past because of protection from outside intention by high transport costs, restrictive production policies subsidized inputs and credit, and preferential access to key markets Globalization and market transition may prove brutally abrupt for many traditional small-scale manufacturing activities whose products cannot compete with higher quality, mass-produced goods.For this reason, the initial stages of depreciation can lead to significant Job losses in the ERNE, even though many of these may later be recovered as new types of rural nonfat activity sprout up, as in India during the sass. Since poor households and male-dominated activities predominate among the low-investment, low-productivity rural nonfat acti vities, they tend to face the most difficult adjustment during this transition. Agriculture has historically played an important role in expanding the economic base of rural regions in the developing world.In regions where agriculture has grown robustly, the ERNE has also typically enjoyed rapid growth. Regions with poor agricultural potential have seen more limited prospects for rural nonfat growth, except in places where the availability of other important rural treatable such as mining, logging, and entree ¶t trade offer an alternative economic platform for sustaining regional growth. In recent years, globalization, arbitration and improved infrastructure have opened up new opportunities in many rural areas, thereby reducing their dependence on agriculture.These developments seemingly offer new prospects for stimulating rural economic growth and, perhaps, new pathways out of poverty. Policymakers hold high hopes that rural nonfat growth can offer a pathway out of poverty for a large segment of the rural poor. Given the enormous diversity observed across rural regions and within the rural nonfat economy itself, opportunities, constraints, and appropriate policies will clearly differ across settings. Although general guidelines cannot substitute for detailed understanding of a specific rural nonfat setting, several broad policy guidelines do emerge from this review.Available evidence suggests the rural nonfat economy can significantly expand economic opportunities for the rural poor if two conditions hold. First, the rural nonfat economy must itself be growing robustly. Both rural nonfat employment and income per worker must be growing if nonfat growth is to contribute effectively to poverty reduction. Typically, this growth in the rural nonfat economy requires investments in the productive capacity and productivity of activities related to rural treatable, such as agriculture, tourism, or natural resource-based activities, in order to ensure their competit iveness in external markets.Alternatively, where low-cost rural labor and low transportation costs coincide, rural households can sometimes compete in urban or export markets through commuting, short-term migration, or urban-to-rural subcontracting arrangements. From a policy perspective, accelerating output and productivity Roth in the rural economic base will require investing in agricultural technology, rural education, communications, transportation, and electrification.Together with a favorable policy environment, these investments encourage rural nonfat business development as well as short-term commuting and migration strategies, both of which serve to increase rural nonfat incomes and investment. But a growing rural nonfat economy does not guarantee access by the poor. Wealthy households, well- endowed with financial, human, and political capital, often prove better equipped to sake advantage of growth in the high-productivity segments of the rural nonfat economy, both as en trepreneurs and as wage employees.Meanwhile, poor backwaters of the rural nonfat economy. Migration opportunities likewise remain bifurcated, with highly educated households more apt to land lucrative positions in towns. Thus, policymakers cannot assume that an expanding rural nonfat economy will translate automatically into pro-poor growth. This bifurcation leads to the second requirement for pro-poor rural nonfat growth: access by the poor to growing nonfat market niches.For nonfat earnings to offer a pathway out of poverty, rural households and policymakers may need to invest in rural education and health in order to improve the human capital stock of the poor. At the same time, policymakers will need to remove economic and social barriers that limit poor people's entry into lucrative nonfat professions. Fluid labor markets, with good transportation and communication systems connecting rural households to regional and urban labor markets, will provide a key bridge linking the rur al poor to growing opportunities in the nonfat economy.

Symbolism of Blindness

Symbol of Blindness in King Lear Blindness is usually defined as the physical ability of the eye to see. But in King Lear by William Shakespeare, blindness is not just a physical quality but also a mental flaw that people possess. This mental flaw can then lead to people making bad decisions because they can’t see the truth. In King Lear, the recurring images of sight and blindness that are associated with the characters of Lear and Gloucester illustrate the theme of self-knowledge and consciousness that exists within the play and these characters.Gloucester’s characters plot parallels that of King Lear’s. Throughout the play, we explore what is meant by eyesight or the lack of it. King Lear is the first and the main character that faces problems by this idea of blindness. In act one, Lear asks his three daughters to express their love for him in order to get the share of the land and dowry. Goneril and Regan come up with an elaborate speech that uses with wit an d deceit.She starts off by saying â€Å"Sir, I love you more than word can wield the matter; dearer than eyesight, space, and liberty; beyond what can be valued, rich or rare; no less than life, with grace, health, beauty, honour; as much as child e'er loved, or father found; a love that makes breath poor, and speech unable; beyond all manner of so much I love you† (Foakes 1. 1. 55-61). The metaphorical language and beauty of Goneril and Regan’s speeches blind Lear.Cordelia truly loves him a lot but he doesn’t see it in her response when she says â€Å"Unhappy that I am, I cannot heave; my heart into my mouth: I love your majesty; According to my bond; nor more nor less† (Foakes 1. 1. 93-95). But on the other hand, Cordelia’s speech makes him feel less powerful. Her language is legalistic and delimiting. It suggests that it is a contractual relationship (Kronenfeld 96). By using the word bond, she makes it more formal but she’s talking to he r father so she should be able to express her feelings in a less formal way.She declares her love to be of no surpassing quality. She is not like her sisters because it is not in her nature to solicit her father with outward showings of love but instead will show it through her actions (Kronenfeld 106). He misunderstands her love and is unable to see the love she actually has for him because of the way all three of the daughters respond. The two older sisters flatter their father instead of speaking the truth so they can get what they want and this leads to Cordelia being disowned.The cause of his blindness appears to be an infatuation with his own rank and station, which is a result of senility. Lear’s kingdom is used as a symbol of affection towards his three daughters. In the first act, it is implied that Cordelia is his favorite daughter. He feels that dividing up the land by the level of love they show to him is the right thing to do. He does not see that Goneril and Reg an will use this as a chance to become his favorites. They will say whatever they need to for their own benefit because they are greedy.Driven by his own blindness, King Lear begins to make many mistakes not just with his daughters but also with his loyal supporter Kent. His blindness doesn’t allow him to see the truth in a person’s personality and character. When Kent hears about Cordelia getting disowned, he is shocked by the decision that King Lear. He tries helping King Lear understand the truth about his daughters but ends up getting banished himself. King Lear wants Kent â€Å"out of my sight† (Shakespeare 1. 1. 159). Kent responds by saying â€Å"See better, Lear; and let me still remain; The true blank of thine eye† (Foaks 1. 1. 60-161). Kent is trying to make him reconsider his decision but Lear’s anger gets the better of him and he banishes him from the Kingdom. The blank can refer to the center of a target but also the absence of somethi ng which captures the ambiguity and vulnerability of our seeing. Kent was King Lear’s eyes and ears and literally helped him see things clearly. Without Kent, he is even blinder to the reality than before. Kent disguises himself and manages to get rehired by King Lear which further shows his blindness. He knew Kent very well and yet couldn’t figure out that he was the same person.His vision and insight on other people never really improves and this leads to his downfall and eventually his death. Shakespeare uses a lot of offstage episodes which also shows the blindness to the audience. This indirect mode of presenting highly significant events generates doubt and confusion because the audience can’t see what is happening but is known only by reports of those who claim to have observed them. But it is hard to rely on here say because of characters like King Lear who are oblivious and blind from the truth.Due to King Lear’s lack on insight, it causes him to make bad judgements and leads him to endure great emotional pain and suffering as a result. It is through his and Gloucester’s characters that Shakespeare has allowed the audience to see what great emotional torment can plague a person because of disloyalty especially when it is that person’s fault due to a lapse in judgement. Shakespeare uses the plot of Gloucester to explicate Lear’s plot by contextualizing Lear’s blindness with Gloucester’s physical loss of vision.His character is very similar to Lear’s because they both couldn’t tell which of their children truly loved and cared for them. Edmund blindsides his father into believing that Edgar was plotting to kill him so this would allow him to gain power. Gloucester was easily convinced that the letter was real and never considers thinking if his son could actually do such a terrible thing. Both Lear and Gloucester are very quick to believe their children that use their language in a smart way to deceive their fathers.Gloucester also ends up disowning Edgar even though Edgar is the son who truly loves him. He doesn’t feel that he is making any wrong decisions and feels that â€Å"Come, if it be nothing, I shall not need spectacles† (Foakes 1. 2. 363-364). The word need means requiring something that’s important so in this case, being able to see the truth is a necessity but Gloucester feels that he doesn’t need that. It denies him the ability to distinguish between his good and evil sons. Gloucester ends up getting his eyes gouged out which is like a wake-up call for him.Edgar feels that â€Å"The Gods are just and of our pleasant vices; Make instruments to plague us; The dark and vicious place where thee he got Cost him his eyes† (Foakes 5. 3. 170-173). Not only does Edgar deceive his father but believes that his father got what he deserved. The blinding of a man is a symbol for the destruction of one’s manhood lik e getting castrated (Halio 222). Gloucester is an adulterer and is somewhat proud of this fact. Edgar goes on to say â€Å"Met I my father with his bleeding rings, Their precious stones new lost; become his guide, Led him, begg’d for him, sav’d him from despair† (Foakes 5. . 188-191). Edgar uses the word stone to refer to Gloucester’s lost eyes because it is a slang term for testicles which implies that the blinding was like Gloucester getting castrated (Halio 223). Once Gloucester became physically blind was when he actually started seeing clearly. It is very ironic when Gloucester says: â€Å"I have no way and therefor want no eyes; I stumbled when I saw. Full oft ‘tis seen Our means secure us, and our mere defects Prove our commodities. Ah dear son Edgar, The food of thy abused father’s wrath!Might I but live to see thee in my touch, I’ld say I had eyes again! † (Foakes 4. 1. 18-24) His inability to see the realities of his s ons when he was mentally blind but managed to see his son’s true colors when he was physically blind because his eyes were gouged out. He eventually learns that vision is not just through your eyes but rather through your heart and mind. Gloucester’s subplot paralleled that of King Lear’s. Cordelia’s silence throughout the play usually signals acquiescence as she never stood up against her father or her older sisters.In Shakespearean tragedies, it generally conveys feelings of fear, despair, and confusion but Cordelia’s silence is evidence of her strength and constancy. Cordelia’s silence in the first few acts can be compared to her unwillingness to communicate in the later scenes. Lear is very similar to Cordelia in the sense that they both are very inarticulate when expressing emotions. After everything that her father has done to her, Cordelia is still devoted to helping her father and brings an army to help him. She doesn’t need t o try to convince her father with words but instead her actions show it all.They are able to reconcile their relationship because of the love that she has for her father unlike her sisters who are willing to do anything to get power. Even though he has wronged her, she sees that he has recognized the errors of his ways. Cordelia is the only loyal daughter King Lear has. Even though she is silent and doesn’t have great communication skills, you can still feel the love she has for her father from the few things that she says. Throughout the play, Shakespeare uses King Lear and Gloucester to demonstrate how metaphorical blindness can cause a person to make erroneous decisions.King Lear’s lack of sight led him to banish Cordelia and Kent, the two people that supported him the most. Similarly, Gloucester is affected by this metaphorical blindness as well and leads to detrimental decisions for him and his family. Ironically, when Gloucester gets literally blind, he starts to think clearly but it is too late at this point to improve things. Only after they lose everything, they recognize that their blindness to honesty has cost them everything. Cordelia chooses to stay silent which she thinks is beneficial but in turn ends up getting her and her father killed.